At this time of year, farmers' markets burst with color: baskets of shiny bell peppers, strings of drying cayennes, glossy poblanos, and the occasional habanero daring you to pick it up. Peppers are one of the most visually striking displays of the late-summer harvest. Some invite you in with sweetness, others warn you with fire. All of them carry deep cultural stories, surprising nutrition, and a resilience that has made them one of the world’s most beloved crops.

A Fruit with a Journey

Peppers (genus Capsicum) are native to Central and South America, where they were cultivated as far back as 6,000 years ago. After the Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries, they spread across the globe at lightning speed. Within a century, peppers (chilies) were embedded in cuisines from India to Korea, from North Africa to Hungary. Today, it’s hard to imagine Sichuan hot pot, Indian curries, or Mexican mole without them.

A note on language. Botanically, all these fruits are peppers from the genus Capsicum. But in culinary use, “peppers” often splits into sweet peppers (like bell peppers) vs. chili peppers (the hot ones). There are also regional differences. In the U.S. and Canada, "peppers" is the most common term, while in much of Europe and Asia, you're more likely to see a variation of "chilies." In this post, I’ll use both terms.

The Science of Spice

While peppers/chilies are best known for their heat, they’re also nutrient-dense fruits with compounds that support health in subtle but important ways.

Vitamins and Antioxidants

Peppers—both hot and sweet—are excellent sources of vitamin C. In fact, a cup of chopped red bell pepper contains more vitamin C than an orange. They also provide carotenoids like beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, pigments that support vision and may protect against oxidative stress. Red and orange peppers tend to be richer in these compounds than green ones.

Incidentally, all bell peppers start green. As they ripen, they shift through yellow and orange to red. With ripening comes more sweetness and more nutrients: red peppers can have nearly twice the vitamin C of their green counterparts, along with higher levels of carotenoids.

Capsaicin: More Than Just Heat

Hot peppers contain capsaicin, the compound responsible for their burn. Capsaicin binds to TRPV1 receptors—nerve endings that typically signal heat or abrasion—tricking your body into thinking it’s on fire. The pain response triggers endorphins, which explains the rush some people feel when eating spicy food.

Research has explored capsaicin’s effects beyond sensation:

• Metabolic health: Capsaicin may slightly increase thermogenesis, helping burn calories.
• Appetite regulation: Some studies suggest it reduces appetite or delays hunger return.
• Pain relief: Capsaicin creams are used topically for arthritis and neuropathic pain, desensitizing nerve endings over time.
• Cardiovascular effects: Small studies link chili intake to improved blood vessel function and lower cholesterol oxidation, though the evidence is still emerging.

It’s worth noting that most benefits are modest—not a miracle cure, but a meaningful addition to a diet rich in plants.

Measuring the Heat: The Scoville Scale

The “heat” of a pepper is measured in Scoville Heat Units (SHU). Sweet bell peppers rate at zero, jalapeños typically fall between 2,500–8,000 SHU, and habaneros can exceed 200,000 SHU. For perspective, pure capsaicin tops the scale at 16 million SHU. Farmers' markets often label peppers by heat, but tasting a small slice is the surest way to know what you’re bringing home.

When Heat Goes Too Far

It’s one thing to enjoy a jalapeño salsa or a sprinkle of chili flakes — it’s another to join the TikTok craze of eating ghost peppers, Carolina Reapers, or “One Chip Challenge” snacks on camera. These peppers clock in at over a million Scoville Heat Units, hundreds of times hotter than a jalapeño.

While extreme heat won’t kill you outright, it isn’t harmless:

• It can trigger vomiting, severe abdominal pain, and dangerous spikes in blood pressure.
• In rare cases, emergency room visits have been reported for ruptured esophagus, asthma attacks, and even fainting spells after extreme chili consumption.
• Children and teens are especially vulnerable, since their smaller bodies and less experienced palates can’t tolerate the shock. In fact, a teenage boy died in 2024 after eating a one-chip challenge chip.

Peppers shine when used to add flavor, color, and gentle fire to food — not when pushed to painful extremes. Traditional cuisines use them this way: layered into dishes for complexity, not as a dare.

If you do consume a pepper that is too hot, consume a fat or starch instead of water (which spreads capsaicin around your mouth) to alleviate symptoms. For example, you can drink (or swish with) milk or eat a slice of bread. If a hot pepper comes into contact with your skin or eyes, rinse with water to flush it away. Apply a cool compress to the affected area to reduce pain and redness.

Sustainability of Peppers

Peppers aren’t just colorful in the kitchen — they tend to be a relatively efficient crop in the field. Compared with many other vegetables, they require moderate water and are often grown in rotations with tomatoes, eggplants, and leafy greens, which helps maintain soil health and biodiversity. In many regions, they’re hand-harvested, which reduces fossil fuel inputs but depends on labor availability.

Because peppers spoil quickly, they’re often wasted. Buying in-season, preserving extras, or choosing discounted “seconds” at the market helps reduce that loss while saving money.

Peppers are the 13th food on the Environmental Working Group’s list of foods and pesticide residue, meaning they are only one away from being on the Dirty Dozen list this year. They tend to carry higher pesticide residues than some other vegetables. If buying organic is within budget, bell peppers and hot peppers are good candidates. If not, washing thoroughly and peeling or roasting can help reduce residues, although these methods also diminish the nutrition.

More Than Food: Chilies in Culture

Across the world, chilies took root not just in fields but in imaginations. The Aztecs burned chili smoke in rituals and healing, while the Maya used peppers in offerings to the gods. When chilies traveled abroad, they were adopted so wholeheartedly they often felt native: the Portuguese carried them to India, where they overtook black pepper; to Korea, where they became the soul of kimchi; and to Hungary, where paprika turned into a national symbol. Even today, chili peppers dangle as good-luck charms in southern Italy, warding off misfortune. Few foods show more clearly how a crop can shape both diets and identities.

Cooking, Preserving, Enjoying

Peppers are one of the most versatile foods at the market.

• Roast and freeze: Char whole peppers, peel the skins, and freeze them for winter soups and stews.
• Dry for spice: Thin-walled chilies, such as cayenne or Thai peppers, can be strung to dry and ground into flakes.
• Make a quick salsa: Use fresh tomatoes, chilies, lime, and onion—customized by heat tolerance.

Final Thoughts

Chilies aren’t just about heat—they’re about color, culture, and resilience. From sweet bells to fiery habaneros, they bring vitamin C, carotenoids, and a jolt of capsaicin with every bite. Their global journey highlights how quickly food can travel and transform culture, while their local abundance reminds us to cook seasonally and preserve resources wisely.

Next time you pass the pepper baskets at your farmers market, think beyond the salsa jar: chilies are both medicine and story, packed into a fruit that knows how to light a fire.

Resources

Cornell University Botanical Garden exhibit on peppers

Dr. Greger on hot peppers and longevity

Dr. Greger on yellow bell peppers for vitamin C

Scoville scale explained

Check out my full website.

Explore my bookshop.org store for books on the biome and related subjects.

(This blog is not intended to diagnose or treat disease. I am not a physician. Please consult your physician for any medical advice. Thanks.)

Affiliate note: I have affiliate relationships with Bookshop, Azure Standard, and Amazon. If you click through and make a purchase, I may earn a small commission at no extra cost to you. I strongly support both Azure and Bookshop for their mission-driven models, and I also include Amazon links, as I know many people find it the most convenient and affordable option. As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases.